Document(s) 9 of 11

Egypt's Water Resources and Availability

Egypt is an arid country covering an area of approximately 1 million km², of which its population occupies only 5.5%. The availability of fresh water resources in the country is limited mainly to the Nile River, groundwater from both renewable and non-renewable aquifers, limited rainfalls along the northern coast and flash floods in the Sinai Peninsula. Egypt also practices the use of various types of marginal quality water, such as agricultural drainage water, treated domestic wastewater and desalinated brackish water.

Egypt receives about 98% of its fresh water from the Nile, originating outside its international borders. This is considered a major challenge for Egyptian water policy and decision makers. The average annual yield of the river is estimated at 84 BCM at Aswan, south of Egypt. However, Egypt's share from the Nile is fixed at 55.5 BCM per year by the 1959 agreement with Sudan.

Groundwater is an important source of fresh water in Egypt, both within the Nile system and in the desert. The renewable groundwater aquifer of the Nile system is recharged from excess irrigation water as well as leakages from the Nile and the distribution network. Current abstraction from the Nile aquifer is about 4.8 BCM/yr and is expected to reach 7.5 BCM/yr by the year 2017. Groundwater also exists in the non-renewable deep aquifers in the Western Desert and Sinai. The total extraction potential of groundwater is estimated at 3.5 BCM/yr.

Rainfall is very scarce and occurs only during the winter season in the form of scattered showers with a total amount that may reach 1.5 BCM/yr. Therefore, rainfall cannot be considered a dependable source of water.

Agricultural drainage water has emerged as the most attractive type of unconventional resource in Egypt in supplementing available water resources. Indeed, reuse of agricultural drainage water has been adopted as a national policy since the late 1970s. Currently, an amount of 5 BCM/yr of drainage water in the Nile Delta is reused directly or after mixing with fresh water.

Interest in the use of treated wastewater, as a substitute for fresh water in irrigation, has accelerated since 1980. Currently, 0.7 BCM/yr of treated wastewater is being used in irrigation, of which 0.26 BCM is undergoing secondary treatment and 0.44 BCM undergoing primary treatment.

Desalination has been given low priority due, in part, to its high cost. Nevertheless, it is being used to produce and supply drinking water for some locations along the Mediterranean and Red Sea coasts.

Water Uses

The prime water consumer in Egypt is the agricultural sector, with its share exceeding 82% of the total gross demand for water. The agricultural sector contributes approximately 18% to the gross domestic product (GDP), and employs 31% of the total labour force. Municipal and industrial uses account for 15% of the total water consumption in the country, while navigation and hydropower generation are considered as non-consumptive uses. Industry and mining account for nearly 18% of the GDP and almost 14% of total employment.

The total water diverted to agriculture from all sources that includes conveyance, distribution and application losses is estimated to be about 60 BCM/yr. Municipal water demand including water supply for major urban areas and rural villages is currently in the order of 5.5 BCM/yr. Industrial water demand is estimated at 7.5 BCM/yr. A small portion of this quantity (0.8 BCM) is consumed through evaporation during industrial processes, while the rest returns back to the system in a polluted form.

Water supply and sanitation is managed by the Ministry of Housing, Utilities and New Communities (MHUNC). The Ministry of Water Resources and Irrigation (MWRI) is responsible for ensuring water of an acceptable quality for all sectors.

Challenges in the Water Sector

Sustainable development of water resources in Egypt is impeded by a number of challenges, most notably a rapid population growth, water scarcity, food security, water quality deterioration, fragmentation of water management among different institutions and cost recovery of water resources services (Abdel-Gawad et al., 2004).

Egypt has reached a stage where the quantity and quality of water is imposing limits on its economic development. The most pressing challenge facing development in the country is population growth. The population has doubled in the last 40 years from 37 million in 1970 to 72 million in 2005 and is expected to reach 95 million in 2025 (Figure 1), thus increasing the related water demands for public water supply and economic activities, in particular agriculture. The annual population growth rate decreased from 2.8% in the period 1976–86 to 2.1% in the period 1986–96, and has decreased further to 1.9% according to the 2004 estimate. The present per capita water share is below 1000m³/year and it might reach 600 m³/capita in the year 2025, which would indicate 'water scarcity'. In addition, rapid degradation in surface and groundwater quality results in less water being available for different uses. Water quality deterioration also has various other impacts including human health hazards, loss of biodiversity and the irreversible pollution of groundwater.

Figure 1. Population growth and per capita water share in Egypt (m3/year)

The per capita cultivated land declined from 0.23 acres in 1960 to approximately 0.1 acres in 2000. This directly affects the food security at the individual, family, community and country levels. Egypt is one of the world's largest food importers, this import accounted for only 27% of the total import bill in 2003 (UNDP & INP, 2005). Egypt is increasingly producing higher value food crops (e.g. fruits and vegetables) and non-food crops (e.g. flax and cotton) and trading them to purchase basic staple grains. Figure 2 shows the self-sufficiency in major food items in 2000 (ICID, 2005). The food

Figure 2. Sufficiency in major food items in 2000

gap for some main crops is expected to increase widely within the next two decades. Unless a very serious plan to expand land resources, rationalize the use of limited water resources and increase the use of land and water efficiency in agricultural production, food security in basic crops can never be achieved.

The weakness of financial resources and low investment profile is limiting the implementation of the required measures of the future water strategy. This is partly caused by the fact that a large portion of the finances are currently expected to come from central government.

In response to all these challenges, the government of Egypt has launched several policies that aim to have better utilization of the limited water resources and increase the efficiency of water use in all sectors. In 2000, the Ministry of Water Resources and Irrigation (MWRI) shifted its long time policy paradigm to an integrated water resources management (IWRM) paradigm to achieve sustainability in water resources utilization for present and future generations, including supply and demand management, quantity and quality management, and a focus on the integration of socio-economic and environmental aspects and on the involvement of all stakeholders in the various water management activities. There are also programmes for cost recovery, institutional reforms, laws and legislations revision, decentralization of responsibilities and privatization of various assets and services of MWRI.

The Right to Water

With water being a basic need carrying a high risk of oppression, it may very well be considered a human right. The human right to water has been explicitly recognized in several international human rights treaties and declarations, especially in the International Covenant on Economics, Social, and Cultural Rights and other international binding laws and regulations as follows: "The human right to water entitles everyone to sufficient, safe, acceptable, physically accessible and affordable water for personal and domestic uses" (United Nations Economic and Social Council, 2002).

It is clear from the statement that the focus is primarily on household water, and that human rights to water for growing food are ignored, although the largest water use by far is agriculture. Indeed, the notion of a human right to water for food is more complicated than that of a right to household water.

The role of international initiatives as well as the constitutional statements supporting the human right to water is discussed in great detail by several other authors in this issue. The following few paragraphs will discuss the role of values and religion in securing the human right to water.

The Right to Water as a Component of Water Ethics

If there is a consensus on the existence of an ethical principle relating water to human rights and the needs to sustain life, as cited in Young et al.(1994): "… needs are no longer measured in consumption per capita per day, but in terms of health and welfare of human populations…", then a great effort is required to fully implement it. Revision of consumption patterns, the introduction of new methods to evaluate the financial efficiency of water projects, the introduction of simpler and/or cleaner technologies, fostering public participation, dissemination of information and education, are all concepts to be put to work together to achieve the goal of universal access to safe water and adequate sanitation.

The First Lady of Egypt, Mrs Mubarak, emphasized the urgency of public participation and the necessity of raising public awareness of the subject: "The right to water is the right to life… The basic ethical rules that govern water rights are the same as those that govern human rights—they both depend primarily on duties and responsibilities" (Mubarak, 1999).

The Right to Water in Religion

Water has a central place in the practices and beliefs of many religions for two main reasons. First, water cleanses. Water washes away impurities and pollutants, it can make an object looks as good as new and wipes away any signs of previous defilement. Water not only purifies objects for ritual use, but can also make a person clean, externally or spiritually, ready to come into the presence of his/her focus of worship. Second, water is a primary building block of life. Without water there is no life, yet water has the power to destroy as well as to create. We are at the mercy of water just as we are at the mercy of our God. The significance of water manifests itself differently in different religions and beliefs but it is these two qualities of water that underlie its place in our cultures and faiths.

The harsh desert climate of the Middle East and North Africa makes water a highly valuable and precious resource. Islamic law, the Shariah, goes into great detail on the subject of water to ensure the fair and equitable distribution of water within the community.

Water is a gift from Allah. It is one of the three things that every Muslim is entitled to: grass (pasture for cattle), water, and fire. Water should be freely available to all, and any Muslim who withholds unneeded water sins against Allah: "No one can refuse surplus water without sinning against Allah and against man". The Hadiths say that among the three people Allah will ignore on the Day of Resurrection there will be "the man who, having water in excess of his needs, refuses it to a traveler…"

There are two fundamental precepts that guide the rights to water in the Shariah: shafa, the right of thirst, establishes the universal right for humans to quench their thirst and that of their animals; shirb, the right of irrigation, gives all users the right to water their crops. Both rules are interpreted in different ways by the various schools of Islam, and their implementation varies from region to region, from village to village, each community applying the law to suit geographical and social circumstances (De Chatel, 2002).

Allha says in the Holy Quran "By means of water we give life to everything", (Quran, 21: 30). The Prophet Mohamed also said: "Excess in the use of water is forbidden even if you have the resources of a whole river". The magic of water lies in its power to give life and cleanse the body and purify the soul.

Egyptian Water Policy and Human Rights

One of the major challenges facing the water sector in Egypt is closing the rapidly increasing gap between the limited water resources and the escalating water demands in the municipal, industrial and agricultural sectors. To this end, a series of water resources policies and guidelines have been developed. These policies were dynamic in nature to allow for changing conditions. In this respect, a series of studies and policy briefs were undertaken in preparation of national water management plans, based on extensive and detailed assessments of the water situation, current and forecasted water demand, and investment needs, including legal and financial means needed. Major progress is being made in articulating the legal framework to regulate water quality, protect the environment and control water use.

However, recent developments with regard to water scarcity, infrastructural needs and environmental and socio-economic considerations necessitate a revision of planning and management practices. A more integrated management approach was seen as essential, one that necessitates much closer coordination among concerned government institutions and the active participation of water users in planning, operation and management (O&M). It also necessitates the enhancement of the legal basis for water allocation, conservation and protection.

To cope up with these challenges, the Ministry of Water Resources and Irrigation (MWRI) has developed a National Water Resources Plan (NWRP) with three major steps: (1) development of additional water resources and cooperation with the Nile Basin Riparian countries; (2) making better use of the existing water resources and increasing water use efficiency; and (3) protection of water quality and the environment. This national plan describes how Egypt will safeguard its water resources (quantity and quality) under the conditions of an increasing population and a fixed water availability and how it will use the resources in a sustainable and responsible way from a socio-economic and environmental point of view. The planning horizon covers a period of 20 years from 1997 up to 2017.

The plan is intended to guide both public and private actions in the future to ensure the optimum development and management of water that benefits both individuals and the society at large. It gives direction, makes choices and leads to obligations. It is based on an Integrated Water Resources Management approach, which makes this plan a real national plan and not only a plan of the MWRI. The most important aspect is the 'political will' Egypt has to implement this national plan.

The total investments needed amount to LE145 billion for the period 2003–17 (NWRP, 2005). The major shares in this investment are taken up by the Ministry of Housing, Utilities and New Communities (62%), the Ministry of Water Resources and Irrigation (32%) and other related ministries (1%). The private sector share is 5% of these investments. The total recurrent costs in the same period 2003–07 are LE41 billion. These costs include the O&M costs of the system but exclude the personnel costs. The municipalities percentage of the O&M of the drinking water and wastewater treatment plants is 70%. The MWRI will cover 12% while the private sector will cover 15%. Other related ministries of Agriculture, Health and Environment will cover 3%.

The national plan (NWRP) considers water first as a human right, and thus proposes several measures to ensure this consideration. The adopted measures also consider the culture of water use in Egypt as well as the religion (NWRP, 2005).

The plan includes measures to develop additional resources, make better use of existing resources, and measures in the field of water quality and environmental protection. These measures are listed in Box 1 and are in line with the principal elements of the UN legal definition of the human right to water, i.e. availability, quality and accessibility (Assaf et al., 2004).

At this stage, it should be noted that much hard work has been devoted to developing the national plan. At the same time, many measures listed in Box 1 have been successfully developed, implemented and further improved.

Box 1. Measures of the National Water Policy

Supporting Institutional and Legislative Measures

The national plan also supports changes in the institutional and legal framework. Today's complex tasks in water management cannot be fulfilled and financed by government actors only. Competition for public finance in health care, education, transportation and telecommunication is dramatically increasing. Investment in the water sector is no exception, but will have to compete with other sectors for public funding. Thus, public-private partnerships (PPPs) have been on the agenda for several years. One reason is financial in order to share the financial burden and reduce costs to the government. The other reason is managerial, to give a broad base for water management and maximize the impact of water projects in terms of job creation and improved water services.

The role of the private sector is expanding fast. As a result, its capacity to assume responsibilities and tasks, which were traditionally the government's domain, is increasing. Two types of PPPs are considered in the Old Lands and New Lands of Egypt: stakeholders' participation in the O&M and development of the irrigation and drainage system, and PPPs in integrated area development where investment in water infrastructure is a central factor.

Stakeholders' Participation

In order to achieve improved water management, some of the O&M responsibilities are now being transferred to the water users and beneficiaries. Farmers are encouraged to form local water user associations and water boards through which planned programmes can be implemented. This would result in reduced water-related conflicts and provide more commitment and support to the water resources management and planning at all levels (Abdel-Gawad et al., 2004).

Egypt is slowly studying and implementing the policy of cost recovery from beneficiaries as a mechanism for improving water use efficiency and introducing new methods that control the irrigation network better and achieve fair water distribution (Abu Zeid & Hamdy, 2002). For example, farmers already share in the O&M costs of the field level small canals as they pay LE18 per acre per year and also through land tax as a contribution of labour cost recovery for the O&M of the system.

Public Private Partnerships in Mega Projects

The government of Egypt has embarked on ambitious programmes to increase the inhabited land from the current 5.5% to approximately 25%. The projected increase is planned through several mega projects of which the North Sinai and South Valley Development projects rank top in terms of size and goals.

In the North Sinai Development project, 70% of the land is allocated to investors and the aim is for large investors to transfer farming technology to small ones. The private sector is expected to provide 65% of the total investment needed for the whole programme, which is projected to reach LE64 billion by 2017. Similarly in the South Valley development project, a large part of the investment costs were recovered from the large investors, to whom most of the area is allocated. The government finances up to 20–25% of the total expenses by constructing the main irrigation infrastructures and the pumping station. Furthermore, the government has established two holding companies in both projects to manage, operate and maintain the irrigation infrastructure and provide services in marketing and training.

Users' Participation

Users' participation in water management is not a new concept in Egypt. On the contrary, the present policy to decentralize water management builds on a history of forms of social organization. However, formal user participation was introduced in 1987 in the Irrigation Improvement Project. Initially, water users associations (WUAs) had no legal status, but that changed with the modification of Law 12 in 1994, in which WUAs were defined as legal organizations at the Mesqa level in the command areas under improvement in Old Lands. In the Law, water users unions (WUUs) were also introduced, which are applicable only in New Lands. More than 2400 WUAs and hundreds of WUUs have been established since then.

In 1995, the first Water Board was established in Fayoum Governorate as a consultative body through which farmers could participate in decision making. To consolidate the initial success of Water Boards, the National Water Boards Project was set up as such "to develop a Viable National Policy and Legal Framework for Participatory Water Management Improvement at Secondary Level". In 2004, the approach was scaled up to the district level through the formation of branch canal water user associations (BCWUAs). Currently, 224 BCWUAs have been established in 10 governorates covering an area of more than 650000 acres (Water Board Project, 2005).

Legal Reform

With regard to the management (O&M) of the government-owned water management infrastructure, a modified version of the governmental Law 12 for Irrigation and Drainage was drafted to provide the basis for government intervention and action and it establishes the context and framework for operation by non-governmental entities, including water boards.

The modified law provides the possibility to delegate part of the management or to transfer complete management to water boards/associations or to specialized companies. The level at which the water boards or specialized companies could operate is at the secondary (branch) canal or above. This provision in the law is sufficient to accommodate the various conditions encountered in the irrigated areas and also allows adequate room for broadening the implementation of the concept of decentralized management and the greater role of the private sector in the future. Through this law, water boards will be allowed to raise funds to cover O&M and other service expenses, including the cost of contracting service providing companies.

Human Rights to Drinking Water and Sanitation

As stated earlier, the current population of Egypt is 72 million of which more than 44% lives in an urban environment and 56% in rural areas. Under its municipal water and wastewater programme, the government of Egypt has invested more than $24 billion in water and wastewater services development over the last 20 years (Figures 3 and 4). In terms of the provision of urban and rural areas with improved drinking water supply and sanitation, Egypt ranks among the best lower-middle-income countries in the world.

Figure 3. Drinking water service development in Egypt

Figure 4. Wastewater service development in Egypt

Drinking Water Services

Drinking water is well supplied with a high rate of satisfaction of the demand reaching 100% in urban areas and 95% in rural areas (Figure 5). The rural population that has access to adequate drinking water has increased from 45% in 1993 to about 95% in 2004, distributed over 4617 villages. The government policy is to have full coverage of rural areas by 2007, including a further improvement of the quality of the service.

Egypt relies on three types of water sources and treatment technology for drinking water:

• large conventional surface water filtration plants drawing from the Nile or canals;
  
  
• compact filtration plants drawing from the canals; and
  
  
• groundwater pumping stations drawing from depths averaging 70 m.

The largest source of drinking water (83%) is the surface water system and only 17% is from groundwater. The water discharged from large treatment plants is generally of good quality. The water discharged by compact units is generally acceptable, although deteriorating water quality in some canals poses a growing threat, especially during the 'off periods in the irrigation rotation. On the other hand, groundwater pumping stations may suffer from quality problems related to chemical and/or bacterial pollution.

The per capita share of service increased from 130 l/day for drinking water in 1982 to 275 l/day in 2004 (Figure 3). According to the data published by the Cabinet Information and Decision Support Center, the total installed capacity of drinking water treatment plants is 21 million m3/day in 2004. This figure gives an average value of 275 LCD. This represents installed capacity divided by the population and hence does not represent consumption levels, which are affected by plant operating efficiency, physical losses, number of connections, etc. Vast differences in installed LCD capacity are largely noted between and within governorates, ranging from a high of 330 LCD in Greater Cairo to 143 LCD in Sharkia (Nile Delta) to 70 LCD in Minya (Upper Egypt). Estimates are further complicated by the poor condition of most consumption meters, particularly in rural Egypt.

Figure 5. Drinking water service coverage in Egypt

In rural Egypt, problems of low continuity or reliability of piped water supply can be found. For example, a survey conducted in Fayoum Governorate revealed that 46% of households complained of low water pressure, 30% of frequent water cuts and 22% of water not being available during the daytime. These problems forced villagers to conjunctive use of canal water.

However, the new plants that are being constructed and those that are planned in the near future will improve the equity in drinking water supply. The total expected capacity would reach almost 26 million m3/day in 2007.

Unaccounted for Water (UFW) Losses

UFW losses amount to almost 34% as a national average, ranging between governorates from 15% to 65%. A significant part of the UFW consists of leakage losses in the supply system as well as the distribution system. The estimated UFW loss of 34% is considered too low by many experts since most water connections are not properly metered.

Sanitation Services

Sanitation services are less developed than those for water supply. At present, there are more than 200 wastewater treatment plants in the country. Urban coverage with improved sanitation gradually increased from 45% in 1993 to 56% in 2004. In contrast, rural sanitation coverage remains incredibly low at 4% (Figure 6). The low coverage, in combination with a sub-optimal treatment, results in serious problems of water pollution and degradation of health conditions because the majority of villages and rural areas discharge their raw domestic wastewater directly into the waterways. The discharges are increasing year after year due to the population growth as well as the rapid implementation of water supply networks in many villages without the parallel construction of sewage systems. Delays in achieving sufficient sanitation services are due to financial constraints.

Figure 6. Wastewater service coverage in Egypt

The capacity of waste water treatment plants has increased by 10 times in the last two decades (Figure 4). The existing capacity of 11 million m3/day serves about 18 million people in mainly urban areas. The plan is to reach a total available capacity of 16 million m3/day by 2007, serving all urban areas.

Adverse Impacts on Health and the Economy

The causal linkages between water supply, sanitation and health are well established. It is estimated that more than 17 000 children die (20% of all child deaths) every year in Egypt from diarrhea diseases caused by sub-standard drinking water quality, inadequate sanitation facilities and inadequate personal, food and domestic hygiene behaviour.

The total cost of environmental degradation has been estimated at LE14.5 billion/year or 4.8% of GDP, of which those due solely to water pollution and water resources degradation are estimated to be LE2.9 billion/year or 1% GDP (World Bank, 2002).

Role of NGOs in Water and Sanitation

The assistance of NGOs has been directed so far to small and poor communities situated along the escarpment of the Nile Valley. There are few case studies of the nongovernmental provision of rural domestic water and sanitation. Their involvement is limited to their participation in donor-funded projects. The NGO package includes funding for materials, technical and engineering assistance and organizational development.

Financing of the Water Sector

Drinking water and wastewater services are heavily subsidized by the government. For example, in Cairo, service fees comprise only 25% and 10% of the actual costs of water supply and sanitation respectively. The inherent subsides to the O&M amounts to 2% of the total public recurrent expenditures (World Bank, 2005). Cost recovery in cities and towns are better in water supply (with Alexandria being as high as 50%) but, equally being as low as 10% in sanitation

Tariffs are set by the government, which are more or less uniform for all governorates of Egypt. Tariffs cover only a fraction of O&M costs. At present, the charge for water supply is 0.23 LE/m3, while the combined costs for water supply and wastewater treatment amounts to 1.10LE/m3.

Improvement of the Water Sector

Vast amounts of work have been done over the past few years to address the problems encountered in the water and wastewater sector. This has been done not only by the Egyptian government, but also with donor inputs such as USA, Germany, The Netherlands and Denmark.

Box 2. Measures on water and wastewater

A wide range of technical, institutional and financial approaches have been addressed using the national organizations such as NOPWASD, the Social Fund for Development as well as the international organizations like CARE. Furthermore, various implementation models have been tried out, including government units working with NGOs and universities.

Egypt is now taking a step forward towards future development by reforming the water and wastewater sector. The change concerned institutional and financial aspects. Thus, a Holding Company for Water and Wastewater and its subsidiary companies was established in 2004 by a presidential decree to develop and implement a holistic policy, which includes expansion of the service delivery, the introduction of modern technology in O&M and management and increasing the private sector participation in activities which are not core to its mission (Box 2). This institutional reform shows the high willingness of the government to significantly accelerate access to water.

Concluding Remarks

With water being a basic need carrying a high risk of oppression, it may very well be considered a human right. The introduction of water as a human right brings new perspectives and dimensions to the notion of sustainable development.

Being an arid country, water management in Egypt is of particular importance for the benefit of all Egyptians. Egypt has successfully developed a national integrated water resources management plan. Egypt's national plan represents a model in integrated planning, reflecting the roles and responsibilities of different water-related sectors and the active participation of water users in O&M. The plan looks at existing and future challenges, the available water resources and at the measures required to face these challenges to meet the expected requirements for safe drinking water, adequate sanitation and improved water resources management. Strengthening the private sector and a carefully considered reduction in government responsibilities are key elements in this plan.

References

Abdel-Gawad, S. T., Kandil, H. M. & Sadek, T. M. (2004) Water scarcity prospects in Egypt 2000–2050, in: A. Marquina (Ed.) Environmental Challenges in the Mediterranean 2000–2050, pp. 187–203 (Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers).

Abu Zeid, M. & Hamdy, A. (2004) Water Crisis and Food Security in the Arab World: Where We Are and Where Do We Go, 2nd Regional Conference on Arab Water, Cairo, Egypt, p. 76.

Assaf, K., Attia, B., Drawish, A., Wardam, B. & Kalwitter, S. (2004) Water as a Human Right: The Understanding of Water in the Arab Countries of the Middle East—A Four Country Analysis. Global Issue Paper, No. 11 (Berlin: Heinrich Böll Foundation).

De Chatel, F. (2002) Drops of Faith: Water in Islam. Available at http://www.islamonline.net/english/Conterporary/2002/11/Article02.shtml

ICID (2005) Water Policy Issues of Egypt, Country Policy Support Programme (CPSP) Report No. 7.

Mubarak, S. (1999) Opening address in Aswan Conference "The Right to Water", Al-Ahram Weekly Online, No. 458, 2-8 December.

NWRP (2005) Water for the Future—National Water Resources Plan 2017, NWRP project, January.

UNDP & INP (2005) Egypt Human Development Report 2005.

United Nations Economic and Social Council, Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, General Comment No.15 (2002) The Right to Qater (Articles 11 and 12 of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights), Geneva, 11–29 November.

World Bank (2002) Egypt: Cost Assessment of Environmental Degradation. Sector Note, Report No. 25175-EGT.

World Bank (2005) Egypt: Operational Framework for Integrated Sanitation Service Delivery, Report No. 32230-EG (Washington, DC: World Bank).

Young, G. J., Dooge, J. C. I. & Rodda, J. C. (1994) Global Water Resources Issues (Cambridge: University Press, Cambridge).

Document(s) 9 of 11